AI Definitions: Machine Learning

Machine learning (ML) - This subset of AI makes predictions or decisions based on patterns it spots in data sets. The process evolves and adapts on its own as it is exposed to new data, improving the output without explicit programming from a human. An example would be algorithms recommending ads for users, which become more tailored the longer it observes the users‘ habits (someone’s clicks, likes, time spent, etc.). Data scientists combine ML with other disciplines (like big data analytics and cloud computing) to solve real-world problems. However, the results are limited to probabilities, not absolutes. It doesn’t reveal causation. There are four types of machine learning: supervised, unsupervised, semi-supervised, and reinforcement learning. A clever computer program that simply mimics human-like behavior can be considered AI, but the computer system itself is not machine learning unless its parameters are automatically informed by data without human intervention. Video: Introduction to Machine Learning

More AI definitions here.

Bent to the Illusion

The Müller-Lyer illusion, a famous optical illusion (involves) two sets of arrows. The arrows are exactly the same length. But in one case, the ends of the arrows outward, seem to signify expansion and boundless potential. In the other case, they point inward, making them seem self-contained and limited. The first case is analogous to how investors see the stock market when returns have been increasing; the second case is how they see it after a crash.

“There’s no way that you can control yourself not to have that illusion,” (Nobel prize winner) Daniel Kahneman told me. “You look at them, and one of the arrows is going to look longer than the other. But you can train yourself to recognize that this is a pattern that causes an illusion, and in that situation, I can’t trust my impressions; I’ve got to use a ruler.”

Nate Silver, The Signal and the Noise

4 Fake News Signals from Outside the Website

Here are some tips for determining if a story is likely reliable. An organization does not need to tick off all these qualifiers in order to be considered authentic and accurate, but the more you see red flags pop up, the more a healthy skepticism is in order.

69. YOUR COMMUNITY. There’s no substitute for knowing people who are well-informed and will let you know when you’ve posted something questionable. These are people you can ask when you have your doubts. Don’t know any experts or researchers, or information junkies from various fields who are critical and helpful? Make some new friends! Developing such a support system is critical for navigating effectively through life. Read some books written by experts. 

70. FACT-CHECKING SITES. Does a fact-checking site identify the assertion of the article as a hoax? Check one of the sites listed at the end of this article or type the article’s topic into a search engine and add “hoax” or “fake.”  

71. THE OTHER SIDE. Take time to check sites that do not agree with your politics. If you discover they are wrong and perhaps not addressing the best arguments of your side, it is a confirmation you are on the right side of an issue. Or maybe you will discover a weakness in your own reasoning you haven’t considered. Either way,  you'll know what other people are consuming, sharpening your thinking.

72. GOOGLING THE TOPIC. If you do a Google search for a topic, remember that reliable researchers do not write material answering questions like “Did the Holocaust exist?” Instead of decent sources, this type of search will bring up conspiracy theorists. Don’t be misled by a search that frames issues as secret plots and nefarious schemes.

 More ways to spot fake news

AI Definitions: Hallucinations

Hallucinations – This is when an AI provides responses that are inaccurate or not based on facts. Generative AI models are designed to generate data that is realistic or distributionally equivalent to the training data and yet different from the actual data used for training. This is why they are better at brainstorming than reflecting the real world and why they should not be treated as sources of truth or factual knowledge. Generative AI models can answer some questions correctly, but this is not what they are designed and trained to do.

More AI definitions here.

looking down

A proud man is always looking down on things and people; and, of course, as long as you're looking down you can't see something that's above you.  – CS Lewis

12 Fake News Signals from the Publisher

Here are some tips for determining if a story is likely reliable. An organization does not need to tick off all these qualifiers in order to be considered authentic and accurate, but the more you see red flags pop up, the more a healthy skepticism is in order.

57. REPUTATION. Is the writer’s reputation at stake if they are wrong? Does the organization risk losing reputation or losing finances if it becomes known for having promoted false news? 

58. RELIABILITY. Has the organization been reliable in the past? Have you read other information from the organization confirmed to be accurate?

59. AMATEURISH. Data collected by an amateur is more error-prone than data collected by a professional scientist. Does a quick web search confirm whether the people who collected and organized the data have a good track record of collecting and distributing data?  

60. RESPONSE TO CRITICS. Does the publisher respond publicly to its critics when there are reasonable questions? Does it acknowledge when the critics have a point? 

61. DATA SOURCES. Look closely at the sources of data the publisher uses: is this material provided by for-profit companies, partisan organizations, or advocacy groups? While the material may be accurate, data from groups with agendas require greater scrutiny than data from nonpartisan organizations. 

62. PAYING THE WRITERS. Content Farms (or Content Mills, if you like) pay very little in return for lots of writing. When news writers are focused on cranking out material to feed the beast, the quality of the work suffers. If you discover a site is considered a Content Farm by professionals or pays writers very little for their work, that’s a big red flag. 

63. DIVERSE VOICES. Does the news organization offer diverse perspectives in its articles? A professional outlet will make a concerted effort to give voice to various ethnicities and political persuasions. The more a newsroom focuses on a single viewpoint, the greater the likelihood it will leave out significant perspectives from its news converge.

64. FEEDBACK. Reputable news publishers want readers’ feedback on stories for accuracy and look for help in determining coverage priorities.  

65. AGREEMENT. Do you find yourself agreeing with everything your preferred news outlet says? If so, something is wrong. Find a commentator whose politics don’t match with your own—vary your media consumption to get a balance of perspectives. 

66. EASY STORIES. Suppose a news outlet overlooks stories worth telling in favor of the stories that can be easily told. In that case, it may not have the resources to dive into investigative reporting or may not have the goal of getting beyond the low-hanging fruit.

67. ANONYMOUS SOURCES. Legitimate news outlets will only reference unnamed sources that would endanger them physically or put them in legal jeopardy. Overreliance on anonymous sources should be a red flag to be skeptical of the information, even if it comes from an otherwise trustworthy site.   

68. FRAMEWORK. Some sites have a framework for all their stories (like the College Fix, which is focused on college campus outrage). Articles on these sites may leave out moderating information, so stories lean toward the framework.

 More ways to spot fake news

Enduring mistreatment to justify revenge

A woman will seek psychiatric attention for depression in response to desertion by her husband. She will regale the psychiatrist with an endless tales of repeated mistreatment by her husband.

The therapist discovers that this pattern of mistreatment has existed for twenty years, and that while the poor woman divorced the brute of a husband twice, she also remarried him twice, and that innumerable separations were followed by innumerable reconciliations.

What is going on here? In trying to understand what has happened, the therapists recalls the obvious relish with which the woman had recounted the long history of her husband’s brutality and mistreatment. Suddenly a strange idea begins to dawn: maybe this woman endures her husband’s mistreatment, and even seeks it out, for the very pleasure of talking about it. But what would be the nature of such pleasure? The therapist remembers the woman’s self-righteousness. Could it be that the most important thing in the woman’s life is t have a sense of moral superiority and that in order to maintain this sense she needs to be mistreated? The nature of the pattern now becomes clear. By allowing herself to be treated basely she can feel superior.

If the world is treating us well we have no need to avenge ourselves on it. If seeking revenge is our goal in life, we will have to see to it that the world treats us badly in order to justify our goal. Masochists look on their submission to mistreatment as love, whereas, in fact it is a necessity in their never-ceasing search for revenge and is basically motivated by hatred.

M Scott Peck, The Road Less Traveled

If the good news is true

If the good news is true, why is not one pleased to hear it?  -Walker Percy

Failure is success

Failure is success if we learn from it. -Malcolm Forbes

How long does it take to Read a Person’s Emotions?

Psychology professor William Ickes found that our ability to read strangers during a six-minute interaction is limited, but other experiments showed that we have much greater accuracy when reading our friends’ behavior. That’s not really shocking, but what is surprising is that when study subjects spent just a little more time with a stranger, their ability to read that person was just as good as their ability to read close friends. The magic time span? Thirty minutes. Time, or at least the amount of information acquired over time, is crucial to empathy. That is not only the case for real-life encounters, but also for stories.

Lene Bech Sillesen writing in the Columbia Journalism Review

Becoming better persons

We cannot sharply separate the process by which we come to have true beliefs from the process by which we try to become better persons. If we demand intellectual certainty about our beliefs before we begin to live out those beliefs, we will not make much progress on the intellectual questions themselves... progress in answering our intellectual questions goes hand in hand with progress in becoming better people. Our beliefs matter... but we cannot hope to settle questions of belief in a way that is prior to and independent of our struggle to become selves of a certain sort.

C Stephen Evans, Kierkegaard: An Introduction

23 Fake News Signals from the Writing

Here are some tips for determining if a story is likely reliable. An organization does not need to tick off all these qualifiers in order to be considered authentic and accurate, but the more you see red flags pop up, the more a healthy skepticism is in order.

You’ll notice these are “tips” and not a checklist. Checklists can oversimply the nuances of discernment into black-and-white boxes.

1. ORIGINAL REPORTING. Does this article cite sources likely to know this information? Does the news organization have reporters attending news conferences in person, working in cities where the news is happening, and talking to key sources directly? Or does the organization have to rely on second-hand information from other sites?

2. LONE-WOLF REPORTING. Compare the information with other sites you trust. Are these sites reporting the same information? The site might have a scoop, but a lack of multiple independent accounts means it is more likely that the story is false. Sometimes lack of coverage is the result from writer and producer bias within a company or the result of the particular focus of the outlet (which may include not offending certain sponsors or other companies owned by the same parent company). Typically, you should expect more than one source reporting on an important topic or event. Plus, it’s always best to read multiple sources of information to get various viewpoints and media frames.

3. AP STYLE. Most legitimate news organizations will use the AP Stylebook as a writing guide (no Oxford comma, full name on the first reference and only last name thereafter, etc.). Some organizations have developed their own style guides (New York Times, Wall Street Journal, etc.). Most news organizations use an in-house style guide (to deal with writing issues unique to the publication’s area of reporting).   

4. POOR GRAMMAR. When a writer makes obvious grammatical mistakes, they also may not have taken the time to ensure the article’s facts are accurate. 

5. ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS. Objective journalism avoids adjectives and adverbs. The more of them used in an article, the more you should question whether the writer’s goal is to inform you or to convince you of something.

6. BALANCE. Did the writer engage with anyone who disagreed with the gist of the article? Quality news organizations are looking for both sides—and sometimes, there are more sides than that. 

7. EXPERTS. Does the article quote not only more than one side in a dispute but experts as well? A he-said-she-said story without experts’ opinions in the field is weak reporting. When there’s only a single source for a news article, be hesitant to accept the information without further corroboration.

8. OBJECTIVE. Like the scientist aiming to discover the truth, having some bias does not mean a journalist cannot arrive at the truth through a tested and effective approach (as does the scientific method, despite the researcher’s bias). The complaint that “no one can really be objective” misses the point that it’s not the journalists themselves but the articles that need to be neutral. While bias websites can still post real news, carefully look at the specific evidence, they offer and see if reporting from other legit sites backs it up.

9. OPINION. Is the article part of an opinion section? Does the video feature a commentator? Commentary has a long history of having a part inside the pages of newspapers, but many readers confuse an editorial article with news reporting. The same can happen online or on TV news. There’s no need for an opinion piece to be neutral in its presentation. Just don’t confuse it with an unbiased news piece.           

10. GENERIC ENEMIES. Does the article focus on vague foes who are never specified? “The media,” “supporters of (insert name of politician),” “The right,” “The left,” “Washington,” etc. Good reporting doesn't make these kinds of generalizations.

11. DOXING. Doxing is making private information public in order to hurt a person or organization. If the writer suggests anything like doxing, run the other way.

12. EMBEDDED LINKS. Quality journalism values clarity over style. Links in the article to original source material show a commitment to transparency and allow readers to make up their own minds about its use. Sometimes bogus stories will cite official or official-sounding sources and even link back to them that do not back up the claims in the article. An article without links or quotes from identified sources should be suspect.

13. SPONSORED CONTENT. Some legit news organizations publish articles similar to what they usually publish as real news—only, in this case, an advertiser actually sponsors the material. The intention could be to provide legitimate information about a subject while at the same time promoting the advertiser's product. Sometimes referred to as native advertising, reputable publishers will identify the article as “sponsored content” or “paid partner content” in a prominent location. A precursor to sponsored content was advertorials—a combination of advertising and editorial opinion. These placements were ads disguised as editorial content. 

14. LOCAL REPORTING. If the story involved a particular locale, was local expertise included? Was the reporting conducted on the scene?

15. YOUR REACTION. Be sensitive to occasions when you become angry as you read an article. If you are outraged after reading something, the story may be written to manipulate your emotions. The more shocking and outrageous, the more work is necessary to confirm the information before passing it along.

16. PARTISAN APPEAL. If a story sounds big but appears only on hyperpartisan sites and seems designed for outrage, it could have significant flaws that stopped legitimate news outlets from covering it.

17. FIRSTHAND SOURCES. Use an article’s information to work back to original sources to verify what’s in the article. If the report references a lawsuit, it can often be found online through a Google search or third party like Scribd, CourtListener, or DocumentCloud. Or, if the article references something a company is doing, check that company’s website (or a government agency) to see if there is a news release about that topic or an announcement on a site like PR Newswire.    

18. MULTIPLE SOURCES. Use keywords from the article (unique terms such as someone’s name) that are likely to bring up the same topic from another source using Google News search. The information from each story can be compared. It is unusual for a single outlet to have exclusive information, especially after several days have passed since the article was posted. To avoid generic, unhelpful search results, use unique keywords in your search—like the name of an unfamous person who’s quoted in the story. 

19. TANTALIZING QUOTES. Search for a questionable quote by pasting the text (in quotation marks) into a search engine. If the exact phrasing doesn’t come up or if only a few small outlets have printed the outrageous quote (perhaps from a famous person or politician), then be skeptical about its authenticity. Look for the sentences before and after the quote that makes your blood boil. If the article fails to give them, that could be a warning sign. If the quote is taken out of context, the site (or writer) belongs on your naughty list.

20. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS. A social movement or political uproar can be manufactured artificially. Look for evidence that the people behind a petition or boycott are real people and the effort is organic. Social media posts shouldn’t come from obscure users or bots. There’s a difference between a few snarky tweets and an actual public outcry.

21. THE WRITERS CREDENTIALS. Does the writer possess specialized knowledge in an area, either advanced education or experience covering a particular beat? This is especially important for opinion pieces. A list of qualifications in a writer’s bio should inform the audience as to their expertise. If they are not knowledgeable about the topic, they rely on other sources. An article without quotes or information from experts raises red flags, especially if creators present themselves as experts when they’re actually enthusiasts. 

22. ODD WORDING. AI-created text lacks the ability to write in a way that sounds natural—for now. When word choices or sentence structures are odd, it could be the product of a computer. The same is true with repeatedly using the same words and phrases or writing that lacks emotion. These are signs of machine-generated text.

OpenAI’s GPT-2 Detector is a tool that help to identify whether text is likely AI generated. While AI writing tools are not useful for reliable scientific texts without strong human intervention, it is likely predatory journals will exploit the quick production of scientific articles to generate low-quality content.

23. IMPROBABLE PRECISION. It’s a red flag when someone claims, "I drove from Chicago to Miami in 1.5847 hours." That kind of precision is unlikely.

More about spotting fake news

The capacity to be an “I”

Differentiation means the capacity of a family member to define his or her own life's goals and values apart from surrounding togetherness pressures, to say “I” when others are demanding “you” and “we.” It includes the capacity to maintain a (relatively) nonanxious presence in the midst of anxious systems, to take maximum responsibility for one's own destiny and emotional being. It can be measured somewhat by the breath of one's repertoire of responses when confronted with crisis. The concept should not be confused with autonomy or narcissism, however. Differentiation means the capacity to be an “I” while remaining connected.

Edwin Friedman, Generation to Generation

What Fake News is NOT

Some people will mislabel rumors, hoaxes, and real news stories they don’t like as “fake news.” Another area of confusion is stories that result from mistaken or bad journalism.  

Sometimes well-respected news organizations get it wrong: sources can lie, documents can be faked, and reporters can mishear quotes. Sometimes new information changes the basic understanding of what is known publicly. You wouldn’t call this fake news since the motivation for posting the original (but mistaken) information wasn’t to deceive. What can make the situation worse: is the financial pressure of shifting away from legacy media (like newspapers) into the digital world, leaving the news industry scrambling to figure out how to support quality journalism financially. 

Between the pressure to meet social media engagement quotas and competition with other publications, writers often don’t get the necessary time to craft thoughtful and nuanced stories—or possess the power to reject an assignment over concerns about amplification.

Inaccurate details, such as reporting that four people are dead in a plane crash instead of six, can result from an honest mistake. The wrong number might have been heard or written down.

During breaking news, information will quickly shift as bits trickle into news organizations. It takes time to get a clear overall picture of what’s happening. Sometimes law enforcement officials or public relations professionals get the story wrong and send inaccurate information. At those times, news organizations are simply repeating mistakes. This is most likely to happen when only one source of information available whenever a story breaks.

Legitimate news sources will report the truth—as best they know it at the time. But as new information comes in, the story can shift. Just like with scientific research, this meandering pathway is just part of the process of getting to the truth.

It’s worth noting that the approach of legacy news organizations (The Washington Post, CNN) differs from new media outlets (BuzzFeed News, Politico). Traditional outlets aim at objectivity or neutral-voice reporting, where the focus is on being balanced, keeping the journalist’s opinions out of reports. More recently launched news sites are likely to focus on immediacy and transparency over neutrality and update readers whenever more information is known. Each approach presents different weaknesses for reporters to overcome. Of course, commentators may reference news information but are not acting as neutral reporters. Opinion pieces are often confused with basic news reporting. Pay attention whether you are reading a news report, an editorial, a guest blogger, a review, a disguised ad, or a comment.

The bottom line: be skeptical and bring a critical mind with you to everything you read. Keep in mind that “fake news” can be about something else besides the truth. As University of Southern California media scholar Mike Ananny has said, it is often “a struggle between [how] different people envision what kind of world that they want.”

Here are some tips for determining if a story is likely reliable. An organization does not need to tick off all these qualifiers in order to be considered authentic and accurate, but the more you see red flags pop up, the more a healthy skepticism is in order.

You’ll notice these are “tips” and not a checklist. Checklists can oversimply the nuances of discernment into black-and-white boxes.

More about spotting fake news

Four Kinds of News Sites

1-Quality news brands (like the BBC and The Washington Post) have earned their reputations over time as consistently reliable news sources (not perfect, but more trustworthy). Savvy readers don’t expect as much from 2-inconsistent outlets that sometimes show bias but are not “fake” (Huffington Post, Fox News). In these cases, some information may be misleading by the way an issue is framed. Then there are 3-satirical news sites (The Onion, Clickhole, and The Babylon Bee). The articles and videos are intentionally fake but intended to be funny or make a point. They aren’t designed to fool anyone. 4-Fake news sites deliberately fabricate stories. (RT News, The Globe) Packaged as legitimate journalism, these articles may mix some truth with outright lies to deceive readers or gain clicks. Fact-checkers distinguish between misinformation, where the sharer may not realize the information is fraudulent, and disinformation, where the creator/sharer knows the information is false. In each case, the motivation of the sharer can be different.

Google searches for “Fake News” since 2014

The Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics encourages journalists to “seek truth and report” and “be accountable and transparent” while doing it. Looking for these qualities is an effective way to separate the fake and the real.

Letting go of the old life

Change can happen at any time, but transition comes along when one chapter of your life is over and another is waiting in the wings to make its entrance. Transition does not require that you reject or deny the importance of your old life, just that you let go of it. Far from rejecting it, you are likely to do better with the ending if you honor the old life for all that it did for you. It brought you everything you have. But it is time for you to let it go of it. It's time to let it go.

William Bridges, The Way of Transition

Novel

Life is God's novel. Let him write it. -Isaac Bashevis Singer

Forget it

Forget about the consequences of failure. Failure is only a temporary change in direction to set you straight for your next success. –Denis Waitley

The Power of Touch

A study of NBA players found the best teams touch each other a lot, while the losing teams seldom touch each other.

Researchers at the University of California at Berkeley looked at what happened between teammates during the 2009 season and found the most touch-prone were the Boston Celtics and the Los Angeles Lakers, two of the league’s top teams at the time. The mediocre Sacramento Kings and Charlotte Bobcats were at the bottom of the touch list. The same held true for individual players. The study took into account the possibility of teams high-fiving just because they were winning and adjusted accordingly. Even when the high expectations surrounding the more talented teams were taken into account, the correlation persisted.

A warm touch reduces stress by releasing hormones that promote a sensation of trust. This can free up the part of the brain that regulates emotion so it can engage in problem-solving.

The investigators also tested couples, finding with more touching came greater satisfaction in the relationship. Previous research has suggested students receiving a teacher's supportive touch on the arm or back or arm were much more likely to volunteer in class, and a sympathetic touch from a doctor gives patients the feeling that a visit lasted twice as long as it actually did.

Stephen Goforth

The best moments of our lives

The best moments in our lives are not the passive, receptive, relaxing times… The best moments usually occur if a person’s body or mind is stretched to its limits in a voluntary effort to accomplish something difficult and worthwhile.

Optimal experience is thus something that we make happen. For a child, it could be placing with trembling fingers the last block on a tower she has built, higher than any she has built so far; for a swimmer, it could be trying to beat his won record; for a violinist, mastering an intricate musical passage. For each person, there are thousands of opportunities, challenges to expend ourselves.

Such experiences are not necessarily pleasant at the time they occur. The swimmers muscles might have ached during his most memorable race, his lungs might have felt like exploding, and he might have been dizzy with fatigue – yet these could have the best moments of his life. Getting control of life is never easy, and sometimes it can be definitely painful. But in the long run optimal experiences add up to a sense of mastery – or perhaps better, a sense of participation in determining the content of life –that comes as close to what is usually meant by happiness as anything else we can conceivably imagine.

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow